Answer
When a major oil spill occurs within a coastal state's waters, a legal network of international conventions is activated to manage intervention rights, civil liabilities, and financial compensation:
INTERVENTION 1969 (International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties): This gives a coastal state the explicit legal right to take radical protective measures on the high seas (including boarding, defueling, or deliberately sinking a damaged ship) to mitigate or prevent a grave oil pollution threat to their coastline.
CLC 1992 (International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage): This places strict financial liability directly onto the registered shipowner for any pollution damage caused by a spill of persistent oil from a tanker. It mandates that shipowners maintain compulsory insurance policies up to specified financial limits based on the ship's tonnage.
Fund Convention 1992 and Supplementary Fund Protocol 2003:- The 1992 Fund Convention provides additional compensation where CLC compensation is not available or is insufficient. The IOPC Funds explain that the 1992 Fund pays compensation when damage exceeds the shipowner’s CLC limit, the owner is exempt, or the owner/insurer cannot meet obligations.
The Supplementary Fund Protocol 2003 provides a third tier of compensation for States that are parties to it, with total compensation up to 750 million SDR including the amounts available under the CLC/Fund regime
OPRC 1990 (International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation): This mandates that ships maintain an approved SOPEP (Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan) and forces member nations to establish a national framework for deploying oil booms, skimmers, and dispersants, ensuring international cooperation during a cross-border spill.
Bunker Convention 2001 — Bunker Oil Pollution from Ships:- The International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001 applies to pollution damage caused by spills of bunker oil, meaning fuel oil used or intended to be used for ship propulsion or operation. IMO states it was adopted to ensure prompt and effective compensation for pollution damage caused by bunker oil spills.
Salvage Convention 1989 — If Salvage Is Involved:- The International Convention on Salvage, 1989 becomes relevant if salvors are engaged to save the ship, cargo, bunkers, or prevent pollution. IMO notes that the 1989 Convention introduced provisions rewarding salvors for efforts to prevent or minimize environmental damage
Nairobi Wreck Removal Convention 2007 — If Ship Becomes a Wreck:- The Nairobi International Convention on the Removal of Wrecks, 2007 provides uniform rules for prompt and effective removal of hazardous wrecks beyond the territorial sea, and States may extend its application to their territorial sea.
LLMC 1976 / 1996 Protocol — Limitation of Liability:- The Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims, or LLMC, may become relevant for certain maritime claims arising from the casualty, depending on national law and whether the claim is excluded by a special convention. IMO states that LLMC provides limitation amounts for maritime claims, with amended limits under the 1996 Protocol.